Caliph on the years of whose reign falls. A man awarded the nickname “the fifth righteous caliph. Period of the reign of Caliph Uthman
Righteouscaliphate, as you know, is associated with the era of the reign of the four closest companions (Sahaba) of the Prophet Muhammad (s.g.v.): Abu Bakra al-Siddiq (R.A., ruled in632-634 biennium by Miladi),Umar ibn Khattaba (R.A.,634-644),Uthman ibn Affan (R.A.,644-656) andAli ibn Abu Talib (R.A.,656-661).
That historical period is considered exemplary for Muslims, so it was the era of the righteous caliphs that was distinguished by the observance of all Islamic canons in the form in which the Almighty sent them down to people through the Messenger of Allah (s.g.v.).
Over the 30 years of the reign of the four companions of the Prophet Muhammad (s.g.v.), the Arab Caliphate turned from a small state located on the territory of the Arabian Peninsula into a regional power, which also included the following regions: North Africa, the Middle East, Jerusalem, Palestine , Persia, Iberian Peninsula, Caucasus.
But at the same time, in the history of the Arab Caliphate, many historians highlight the era of the reign of another caliph - Umar ibn Abdul-Aziz (Umar II). For his outstanding services in government, as well as for his piety and imitation of the companions of the Prophet Muhammad (sgv), he was nicknamed "the fifth righteous caliph." At the same time, some Muslim theologians assigned this status to the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad (s.g.v.) - Hasan ibn Ali, who ruled for several months after his father and the fourth righteous caliph.
Umar II before accession to the throne
Umar ibn Abdul-Aziz was born in 680 (according to another version in 682 -approx. Islam . Global ) in Medina. His father Abdul-Aziz ibn Marwan was a representative of the Umayyad dynasty, ruling at that time in the territory of the Arab Caliphate. However, he was the youngest son of Caliph Marwan and therefore his accession to the throne, as well as his sons, seemed unlikely at that time. That is why Umar ibn Abdul-Aziz did not prepare for the throne and his accession to the throne came as a great surprise to him.
The predecessor of Umar II, Suleiman ibn Abdul-Malik, was his cousin, while the caliph at that time had several sons and siblings. Two years after ascending to the throne, Caliph Suleiman, who was on a military campaign, fell seriously ill. The position of the ruler seemed almost hopeless and then he seriously thought about his successor to the post of caliph.
The eldest son of Suleiman, Ayyub, who was considered the heir to the throne, died shortly before his father's death. At the time of his father's illness, the second son of the Caliph was on a military campaign against the Byzantine Empire, and therefore few people considered him as a possible heir to the throne. The rest of Suleiman's sons had not reached the age of majority by that time, which means they had no right to claim to rule the state.
In addition, Suleiman could transfer power to his siblings, but he was not in such a close relationship with them. In this situation, the choice of the caliph fell on his cousin - Umar ibn Abdul-Aziz, whose candidacy was approved by the majority of the country's largest military leaders, which served as a guarantee of the stability of the state.
"Strange" ruler
Becoming the head of state, Umar ibn Abdul-Aziz gave up luxury and life in a large palace in Damascus, in which all his predecessors lived, and settled in a small modest two-room house. In addition, he donated all of his wealth to the state treasury. The family estates of Umar II, which, in his opinion, were acquired illegally by his father, were no exception. He also freed all the slaves who were due to him as a ruler, abandoned a large number of courtiers. Umar II returned all the lands taken by his predecessors to their rightful owners. His wife Fatima also followed her husband's example and donated all of her jewelry, donated to her by her father, to the needs of ordinary people.
Caliph Umar throughout his reign led a rather modest lifestyle, and all the wealth and jewelry that he received as a gift went to the needs of the poor.
The prohibition of curses against Ali (r.a.)
When Umar II came to power, he forbade to pronounce curses against the fourth righteous caliph, Ali ibn Abu Talib (r.a.) and his family.
The fact is that the founder of the Umayyad dynasty, Mu'awiya ibn Abu Sufyan, was the governor of Egypt and Syria at the beginning of the reign of Ali (R.A.). After the third righteous caliph (r.a.) died at the hands of the rebels in 656, Ali ibn Abu Talib (r.a.) became the leader of the faithful. However, Mu'awiyah refused to swear allegiance to him, accusing him of organizing a conspiracy against Caliph Uthman (R.A.).
As a result of the disagreements that arose in the Arab Caliphate, Muawiyah ibn Abu Sufyan rebelled against the new ruler of the Muslims, but he failed to overthrow the fourth righteous caliph. After the death of Ali (r.a.), his son, Hasan ibn Ali (r.a.), became his successor, who a few months later was forced to transfer power in the country to Mu'awiyah ibn Abu Sufyan, who had great support in the country from many influential people.
In addition, the Shiite opposition, which did not recognize the Umayyads as legitimate rulers, called Muawiya and his successors usurpers of power. According to Shiites, only the descendants of Ali ibn Abu Talib (r.a.) have the right to rule the Muslim state.
Thus, the disagreements that arose among the first Umayyads with one of the closest Sahaba of the Messenger of Allah (s.c.v.) and his followers, led to the fact that in the Arab Caliphate, at the direction of the authorities, they began to publicly blaspheme Caliph Ali (R.A.) and his descendants. With the coming to power, Umar II banned this practice, since he considered it unworthy to publicly insult the companions of the Prophet Muhammad (s.g.v.).
Umar ibn Abdul-Aziz paid special attention to the needs of ordinary people. During his reign, many wells were repaired, which was especially important for residents of the hot provinces of the Caliphate. In addition, many roads were laid and communication between the country's settlements was improved. During the time of Umar II, many ordinary people managed to return their property, which was illegally taken from them under the previous rulers.
Reforms in the religious sphere
Caliph Umar II also paid serious attention to the religious component, since he himself had extensive knowledge in the field of Islamic theological thought. In particular, during his reign, a large number of mosques were built in different parts of the Caliphate, thanks to which residents of even the most remote cities and villages were able to perform. In addition, it was under Umar ibn Abdul-Aziz that mihrabs appeared in mosques. (special niches in the walls - approx. Islam . Global ) indicating the direction to the Kaaba. In addition, he provided all kinds of support to scholars in the field of Islamic theology, encouraged the study of the Holy Quran and the Most Pure Sunnah.
In addition to supporting the activities of Muslim theologians, he waged a fierce struggle with those who, for their own selfish purposes, distorted religious canons and tried to sow enmity in a multi-confessional state. He called upon his governors in the provinces of the Arab Caliphate to be guided in their activities exclusively by the provisions of the Holy Scriptures and the Noble Sunnah. It was from this that many of the prohibitions adopted by Caliph Umar II followed. For example, he suppressed the collection of additional taxes and other payments from ordinary people that were not provided for by Islamic primary sources. In addition, Umar ibn Abdul-Aziz prohibited the collection of fees from representatives of the clergy and religious institutions.
Death of Caliph Umar II
Three years after accession to the throne, the physical condition of Umar II deteriorated sharply. According to some historians, he suffered from cancer. On the first day of the month of Rajab, 101 AH (720 Miladi), Caliph Umar passed into another world. After his death, he left his children neither palaces nor countless riches, as was the case with his predecessors. However, in just three years of his reign, he significantly improved the lives of ordinary people, including through his personal material contribution. For his numerous successes during his reign, as well as for leading a modest lifestyle, strict adherence to the biography of the Prophet Muhammad (sgv) and the righteous caliphs, he received the honorary nickname "the fifth righteous caliph" in the history of Islam.
Baghdad Caliphate of the Abbasid dynasty
The Abbasids were descendants of al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Mutallib ibn Hashim, who was the uncle of the Prophet. They believed that they were also closely related to the Prophet, like the clan of Ali. Their claims to power were first revealed under Omar II. The Abbasids created secret societies in Kufa and Khorasan and, taking advantage of the strife between the Omeids, began an armed struggle. In 749, they seized power in the city of Kufa, and then in many other lands of the Muslim state. In the fall of 749, in Kufa, Muslims swore allegiance to the first caliph of the new dynasty, Abu al-Abbas al-Saffah. His successor, Caliph al-Mansur, who ruled from 754 to 775, founded the new capital, the City of Peace, or Baghdad. Baghdad was built on the Tigris River in 762.
At the beginning of the reign of this dynasty in 751, in a battle near the Central Asian river Talas, the Muslims defeated a huge Chinese army, after which Islam in Central Asia was finally consolidated and further the limits of the Caliphate did not expand anymore. Iran became the main province of the Abbasid Caliphate. In the structure of government, finance, mail, the Abbasids followed the example of the Sassanid kings. Those close to the Abbasids were mostly Iranians.
The Arabs in the Baghdad Caliphate, except for the descendants of the Prophet, have lost their exclusive position in society. They were given equal rights with all Muslims, among whom the majority were Turks and Iranians. The Abbasid dynasty ruled for almost five hundred years, three hundred years of which were marked by the flourishing of Muslim culture and science.
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1230 years ago, on September 14, 786, Harun ar-Rashid (Harun al-Rashid), or the Just (766-809), became the ruler of the Abassid caliphate, the fifth Baghdad caliph from the Abbasid dynasty.
Harun turned Baghdad into the brilliant and intellectual capital of the East. He built a magnificent palace for himself, founded a large university and a library in Baghdad. The Caliph built schools and hospitals, patronized the arts and sciences, encouraged music lessons, and attracted scientists, poets, doctors and musicians, including foreigners, to the court. He was fond of science and wrote poetry. Under him, agriculture, crafts, trade and culture achieved significant development in the Caliphate. It is believed that the reign of Caliph Harun al-Rashid was marked by economic and cultural prosperity and remained in the memory of Muslims as the "golden age" of the Baghdad Caliphate.
As a result, the figure of Harun ar-Rashid was idealized in Arabic folklore. He became one of the heroes of the "Thousand and One Nights" fairy tales, where he appears as a kind, wise and just ruler who protects ordinary people from dishonest officials and judges. Pretending to be a merchant, he wandered the night streets of Baghdad so that he could communicate with ordinary people and learn about the true state of affairs in the country and the needs of his subjects.
True, already during the reign of Harun, there were signs of a crisis in the caliphate: there were large anti-government uprisings in North Africa, Deilem, Syria, Central Asia and other areas. The Caliph sought to strengthen the unity of the state on the basis of official Islam, relying on the clergy and the Sunni majority of the population, and against the opposition movements in Islam carried out repression and pursued a policy of restricting the rights of the non-Muslim population in the Caliphate.
From the history of the Arab Caliphate
Arab statehood originated in the Arabian Peninsula. The most developed area was Yemen. Earlier than the rest of Arabia, the development of Yemen was caused by the intermediary role that it played in the trade of Egypt, Palestine and Syria, and then the entire Mediterranean, with Ethiopia (Abyssinia) and India. In addition, there were two more major centers in Arabia. In the west of Arabia, Mecca was located - an important staging post on the caravan route from Yemen to Syria, which flourished through transit trade. Another major city in Arabia was Medina (Yathrib), which was the center of an agricultural oasis, but there were also merchants and artisans. So, if by the beginning of the VII century. most of the Arabs living in the central and northern regions remained nomads (Steppe Bedouins); then in this part of Arabia there was an intensive process of decomposition of the tribal system and early feudal relations began to take shape.
In addition, the old religious ideology (polytheism) was in crisis. Christianity (from Syria and Ethiopia) and Judaism penetrated Arabia. In the VI century. in Arabia, a movement of the Hanifs arose, recognizing only one God and borrowing some attitudes and rituals from Christianity and Judaism. This movement was directed against tribal and urban cults, for the creation of a single religion recognizing a single God (Allah, Arabic al - ilah). The new doctrine arose in the most developed centers of the peninsula, where feudal relations were more developed - in Yemen and the city of Yasrib. The movement also captured Mecca. One of its representatives was the merchant Muhammad, who became the founder of a new religion - Islam (from the word "obedience").
In Mecca, this teaching met with opposition from the nobility, as a result of which Muhammad and his followers were forced to flee to Yathrib in 622. From this year the Muslim chronology is being kept. Yathrib received the name Medina, that is, the city of the Prophet (as they began to call Muhammad). The Muslim community was founded here as a religious and military organization, which soon turned into a major military and political force and became the center for the unification of Arab tribes into a single state. Islam, with its preaching of the brotherhood of all Muslims, regardless of tribal division, was adopted primarily by ordinary people who suffered from the oppression of the tribal nobility and had long lost faith in the power of tribal gods, who did not protect them from bloody tribal massacres, disasters and poverty. At first, tribal nobility and wealthy merchants opposed Islam, but then recognized its benefits. Islam recognized slavery and protected private property. In addition, the creation of a strong state was in the interests of the nobility, it was possible to begin external expansion.
In 630, an agreement was reached between the opposing forces, according to which Muhammad was recognized as a prophet and head of Arabia, and Islam was recognized as a new religion. By the end of 630, a significant part of the Arabian Peninsula had recognized the rule of Muhammad, which meant the formation of the Arab state (caliphate). Thus, conditions were created for the unification of the sedentary and nomadic Arab tribes, and the beginning of external expansion against the neighbors, who were mired in internal problems and did not expect the emergence of a new strong and united enemy.
After the death of Muhammad in 632, the system of government of the caliphs (deputy prophet) was established. The first caliphs were companions of the prophet and under them a wide external expansion began. By 640, the Arabs had conquered almost all of Palestine and Syria. At the same time, many cities were so tired of the repressions and tax oppression of the Romans (Byzantines) that they practically did not offer resistance. The Arabs in the first period were quite tolerant of other religions and foreigners. So, such major centers as Antioch, Damascus and others surrendered to the conquerors only on condition of preserving personal freedom, freedom for Christians and Jews of their religion. The Arabs soon conquered Egypt and Iran. As a result of these and further conquests, a huge state was created. Further feudalization, accompanied by the growth of the power of large feudal lords in their possessions, and the weakening of the central power, led to the collapse of the Caliphate. The governors of the caliphs - emirs gradually achieved complete independence from the central government and turned into sovereign rulers.
The history of the Arab state is divided into three periods according to the name of the ruling dynasties or the location of the capital: 1) Meccan period (622 - 661) - this is the time of the reign of Muhammad and his close associates; 2) Damascus (661-750) - the reign of the Umayyads; 3) Baghdad (750 - 1055) - the rule of the Abbasid dynasty. Abbas is the uncle of the Prophet Mohammed. His son Abdullah became the founder of the Abbasid dynasty, which in the person of Abdullah's grandson, Abul-Abbas, took the throne of the Baghdad caliphs in 750.
Arab Caliphate during the reign of Harun
Harun ar-Rashid's reign
Harun ar-Rashid was born in 763 and was the third son of Caliph al-Mahdi (775-785). His father was more inclined towards the pleasures of life than towards government affairs. The Caliph was a great lover of poetry and music. It was during his reign that the image of the court of the Arab caliph, famous for its luxury, sophistication and high culture, began to take shape, which later became famous in the world from the tales of the Thousand and One Nights.
In 785, Musa al-Hadi, the son of Caliph al-Mahdi, the elder brother of Caliph Harun al-Rashid, took the throne. However, he ruled for only a little over a year. Apparently, he was poisoned by his own mother - Khaizuran. She supported the youngest son Harun ar-Rashid, as the eldest son tried to conduct an independent policy. With the accession to the throne of Harun ar-Rashida, Khaizuran became an almost sovereign ruler. Its main support was the Persian clan of the Barmakids.
The Khalid of the Barmakid dynasty was an advisor to the Caliph al-Mahdi, and his son Yahya ibn Khalid was the head of the divan (government) of Prince Harun, who at that time was the governor of the west (all provinces west of the Euphrates) with Syria, Armenia and Azerbaijan. After the accession to the throne of Harun ar-Rashid Yahya (Yahya) Barmakid, whom the Caliph called "father", was appointed a vizier with unlimited powers and for 17 years (786-803) ruled the state with the help of his sons Fadl and Jafar. However, after the death of Khaizuran, the Barmakid clan began to gradually lose its former power. Freed from the care of his mother, the ambitious and cunning Caliph sought to concentrate all the power in his hands. At the same time, he tried to rely on such freedmen (mawali) who would not show independence, would completely depend on his will and, naturally, were completely devoted to him. In 803, Harun overthrew a powerful family. Jafar was killed by order of the Caliph. And Yahya with his other three sons was arrested, their estates were confiscated.
Thus, in the first years of his reign, Harun relied in everything on Yahya, whom he appointed as his vizier, and also on his mother. The Caliph was primarily concerned with the arts, especially poetry and music. Harun al-Rashid's court was the center of traditional Arab arts, and the luxury of court life was legendary. According to one of them, Harun's wedding alone cost the treasury 50 million dirhams.
The general situation in the caliphate was gradually deteriorating. The Arab Empire began its journey to its decline. The years of Harun's rule were marked by numerous unrest and revolts that broke out in different areas of the empire.
The process of disintegration began in the most remote, western regions of the empire since the establishment of Umayyad power in Spain (Andalusia) in 756. Twice, in 788 and 794, uprisings broke out in Egypt. The people were dissatisfied with the result of the high taxes and numerous duties that this richest province of the Arab Caliphate was burdened with. She was obliged to supply everything necessary for the Abbasid army, sent to Ifrikiya (modern Tunisia). The commander and governor of the Abbasids, Harsama ibn Ayan, brutally suppressed the uprisings and forced the Egyptians into obedience. The situation with the separatist aspirations of the Berber population of North Africa turned out to be more complicated. These areas were removed from the center of the empire, and due to the terrain conditions of the Abbasid army, it was difficult to cope with the rebels. In 789, the power of the local Idrisid dynasty was established in Morocco, and a year later - in Ifrikia and Algeria - the Aghlabids. Harsama managed to suppress the rebellion of Abdallah ibn Jarud in Kairawan in 794-795. But in 797, rebellion broke out again in North Africa. Harun was forced to come to terms with the partial loss of power in the region and entrust the rule of Ifriqiya to the local emir Ibrahim ibn al-Aglab in exchange for an annual tribute of 40 thousand dinars.
Far from the centers of the empire, Yemen was also unsettled. The brutal policies of the governor of Hammad al-Barbari led to an uprising in 795 under the leadership of Haytham al-Hamdani. The uprising lasted nine years and ended with the exile of its leaders to Baghdad and their execution. Syria, inhabited by rebellious, warring Arab tribes who were in favor of the Umayyads, was in a state of almost continuous revolts. In 796, the situation in Syria turned out to be so serious that the Caliph had to send an army led by his favorite Jafar from the Barmakids clan. The government army succeeded in suppressing the rebellion. It is possible that the unrest in Syria was one of the reasons for Harun's move from Baghdad to Raqqa on the Euphrates, where he spent most of his time and from where he went on campaigns against Byzantium and on a pilgrimage to Mecca.
In addition, Harun did not like the capital of the empire, he feared the inhabitants of the city and preferred to appear in Baghdad not too often. Perhaps this was due to the fact that the extravagant when it came to court entertainments, the caliph was very tight-fisted and merciless in collecting taxes, and therefore did not enjoy the sympathy of the people of Baghdad and other cities. In 800, the caliph specially came from his residence to Baghdad in order to collect arrears in the payment of taxes, and the arrears were mercilessly beaten and imprisoned.
In the east of the empire, the situation was also unstable. Moreover, the constant unrest in the east of the Arab Caliphate was associated not so much with economic preconditions as with the peculiarities of the cultural and religious traditions of the local population (mainly Persians-Iranians). The inhabitants of the eastern provinces were more attached to their own ancient beliefs and traditions than to Islam, and sometimes, as was the case in the provinces of Daylam and Tabaristan, they were completely alien to him. In addition, the conversion of the inhabitants of these provinces to Islam by the 8th century. not yet fully completed, and Harun personally engaged in Islamization in Tabaristan. As a result, the dissatisfaction of the inhabitants of the eastern provinces with the actions of the central government led to unrest.
Sometimes the locals were in favor of the Alid dynasty. Alids are descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib, a cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad, the husband of the Prophet's daughter Fatima. They considered themselves the only legitimate successors of the prophet and claimed political power in the empire. According to the religious-political concept of the Shiites (the party of Ali's supporters), the supreme power (imamat), like a prophecy, is regarded as "divine grace." By virtue of the "divine prescription" the right to the imamat belongs only to Ali and his descendants and should be inherited. From the point of view of the Shiites, the Abbasids were usurpers, and the Alids were in a constant struggle for power with them. So, in 792, one of the alids, Yahya ibn Abdallah, raised an uprising in Daylam and received support from local feudal lords. Harun sent al-Fadl to Daylam, who, with the help of diplomacy and promises of amnesty to the participants in the uprising, achieved the surrender of Yahya. Harun insidiously broke his word and found an excuse to cancel the amnesty and throw the leader of the rebels in prison.
Sometimes these were the uprisings of the Kharijites, a religious and political group that separated from the main part of the Muslims. The Kharijites recognized only the first two caliphs as legitimate and advocated the equality of all Muslims (Arabs and non-Arabs) within the community. It was believed that the caliph should be elected and have only executive power, while the council (shura) should have judicial and legislative power. The Kharijites had a strong social base in Iraq, Iran, Arabia, and even in North Africa. In addition, there were various Persian sects of radical directions.
The most dangerous for the unity of the empire during the time of Caliph Harun al-Rashid were the performances of the Kharijites in the provinces of North Africa, Northern Mesopotamia and Sijistan. The leader of the uprising in Mesopotamia al-Walid al-Shari in 794 seized power in Nisibin, attracted the tribes of al-Jazira to his side. Haruna had to send an army against the rebels led by Iazid al-Shaybani, who managed to suppress the uprising. Another uprising broke out in Sijistan. Its leader Hamza al-Shari in 795 seized Kharat and extended his power to the Iranian provinces of Kirman and Fars. Harun did not manage to cope with the Kharijites until the very end of his reign. In the last years of the VIII and at the beginning of the IX century. Khorasan and some regions of Central Asia were also engulfed in unrest. 807-808 Khorasan actually ceased to obey Baghdad.
At the same time, Harun pursued a tough religious policy. He constantly emphasized the religious nature of his power and severely punished any manifestation of heresy. Harun's policy towards the gentiles was also characterized by extreme intolerance. In 806 he ordered the destruction of all churches along the Byzantine border. In 807, Harun ordered the renewal of the old restrictions on clothing and behavior for the Gentiles. The believers had to gird themselves with ropes, cover their heads with quilted hats, wear shoes different from those worn by the faithful, ride donkeys rather than horses, etc.
Despite constant internal revolts, unrest, and uprisings of disobedience of the emirs of certain regions, the Arab Caliphate continued the war with Byzantium. Border raids by Arab and Byzantine troops took place almost every year, and Harun personally took part in many military expeditions. Under him, administratively, a special border area with fortified fortified cities was allocated, which played an important role in the wars of subsequent centuries. In 797, taking advantage of the internal problems of the Byzantine Empire and its war with the Bulgarians, Harun penetrated with an army deep into Byzantium. Empress Irina, regent of her young son (later independent ruler), was forced to conclude a peace treaty with the Arabs. However, the Byzantine emperor Nicephorus, who replaced her in 802, resumed hostilities. Harun sent his son Kasim with an army against Byzantium, and later personally led the campaign. In 803-806. the Arab army captured many cities and villages on the territory of Byzantium, including Hercules and Tiana. Attacked by the Bulgarians from the Balkans and defeated in the war with the Arabs, Nicephorus was forced to conclude a humiliating peace and undertook to pay tribute to Baghdad.
In addition, Harun drew attention to the Mediterranean Sea. In 805, the Arabs undertook a successful sea campaign against Cyprus. And in 807, by order of Harun, the Arab commander Humayd raided the island of Rhodes.
The figure of Harun ar-Rashid has been idealized in Arabic folklore. The opinions of contemporaries and researchers about its role are very different. Some believe that the rule of Caliph Harun al-Rashid led to the economic and cultural flourishing of the Arab empire and was the "golden age" of the Baghdad Caliphate. Haruna is called a pious person. Others, on the contrary, criticize Harun, call him a dissolute and incompetent ruler. It is believed that everything useful in the empire was done under the Barmakids. The historian al-Masoudi wrote that "the prosperity of the empire diminished after the fall of the Barmakids, and everyone became convinced how imperfect were the actions and decisions of Harun al-Rashid and his bad rule."
The last period of Harun's reign really does not indicate his foresight and some of his decisions eventually contributed to the strengthening of internal confrontation and the subsequent collapse of the empire. So, at the end of his life, Harun made a big mistake when he divided the empire between the heirs, sons from different wives - Mamun and Amin. This led, after the death of Harun, to a civil war, during which the central provinces of the Caliphate and especially Baghdad were severely damaged. The Caliphate ceased to be a single state, in different regions dynasties of local large feudal lords began to emerge, only nominally recognizing the power of the "ruler of the faithful."
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Origin. Justification of claims to power
Claiming supreme power, the Abbasids argued that the Umayyads, although they came from the Qureish tribe, did not belong to the Prophet's clan, that is, the Hashemites. The Abbasids were descended from the uncle of the prophet Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib from the Meccan clan of Hashim. The latter was the brother of Muhammad's father, Abdallah, and Ali's father, Abu Talib. Initially, the Abbasids did not play a significant role in public affairs. But as dissatisfaction with the ruling Umayyad dynasty grew in the Caliphate, the importance of this clan increased. Due to their close relationship with the Alids, the Abbasids could count on the support of the Shiites in the struggle for power. Abbas's great-grandson, Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Abdullah, managed at the beginning of the 8th century to enlist the support of several Shiite clans, who recognized him as their imam. Ibn al-Tiktak reports that Muhammad received an imamate from one of the Shiite imams, Abu Hashim Abdullah, who, dying, declared him his successor.
"Abbasid revolution"
From that time on, the Abbasids began secretly preparing for the overthrow of the Umayyads, sending their agents everywhere. The real center of the anti-Homeyad movement was Kufa, but the Abbasids found especially favorable ground for their propaganda in Khorasan and Maverannahr among the Shiites there. In 743, Muhammad was captured and executed. The Imamat passed to his son Ibrahim. Under him, a talented preacher and a capable military leader Abu Muslim, a Persian by birth, went to Khorasan. By faith he was a Shiite, but he devoted all his strength to the Abbasid cause. In a short time, Abu Muslim managed to create a powerful organization of followers and win over to the side of the Abbasids not only the Arabs-Calbitis who had been removed from power by that time, but also the overwhelming part of the urban population of Iran, who had converted to Islam. He was also supported by many Shiites, who are confident that after the overthrow of the Umayyads, power will pass to the descendants of Ali.
The Abbasid success was facilitated by the Umayyad civil strife, which erupted after the death of Caliph Hisham in 743. In 747, an anti-Maiyad uprising began in Khorasan, led by representatives of the Abbasids - Ibrahim ibn Muhammad, and after his death - by his brother Abul-Abbas al-Saffah. On June 26, 749, the Abbasids won a victory at Nehavend, which opened the way for them to Baghdad. On November 28 of the same year, in the cathedral mosque of Kufa, Abu-l-Abbas swore in his new subjects.
The last Umayyad caliph Marwan II ruled the western part of the caliphate for another six months, then fled to Egypt, where he was killed in 750. The Abbasids almost completely exterminated the Umayyads, and also destroyed their recent supporters in the anti-Maiyad movement - Abu Salam () and Abu Muslim ().
State disintegration
The disintegration of the unified Arab Caliphate, which began under the last Umayyads, continued under the Abbasids.
Appointed in 755 A.D. Governor of al-Andalus, one of the few surviving Umayyads, Abd ar-Rahman, set aside and created the Emirate of Cordoba in the following year (776 AD). In 777 A.D. Maghreb was deposited from the caliphate, where the imam of the Ibadis Abd ar-Rahman ibn Rustam founded the Rustamid state. In the period 784-789, Idris ibn Abdullah established power over the Berber tribes of western Ifrikiyya, establishing in its place the Shiite emirate of the same name. By 800 A.D. representatives of the Aghlabid clan established their authority over the eastern part of Ifrikiyya, recognizing the authority of Baghdad only formally.
Thus, during the first half-century of the Abbasid rule (until the end of the reign of Harun ar-Rashid), the entire western (up to Egypt inclusive) part was deposited from the Caliphate. In the internal struggle for power, the descendants of al-Rashid in 809-827 AD. unleashed the Fourth Fitna; using the civil war as a pretext, in 819 AD. Khorasan and Maverannahr were deposited from the Caliphate, where the Samanids came to power and created their own state. In 885 A.D. Armenia broke away from the Caliphate, thus restoring independence. Flared up in the early 900s A.D. In the Aghlabid state, the Ismaili movement led not only to the fall of the Ifrikiyya states, but also to the transition of Egypt to the Fatimid Caliphate from the Abbasid one. At the height of the Abbasid-Fatimid war, in 945 AD, the Shiite Buyid confederation actually seized power in Iraq, recognizing the Abbasid supremacy only nominally.
Buyid rule
Seljuk power
Restoring the political independence of the Caliphate
Caliphs
The Caliphs of the Abbasid Caliphate came from the Abbasid dynasty.
| № | Name | Governing body | Note | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Power | ||||
| 1 | Abul Abbas al-Saffah | 750-754 | During the Khurasan unrest against the Umayyads, he established relations with Abu Muslim and proclaimed himself Caliph. He died of smallpox four years after his accession to the throne. | |
| 2 | Abu Jafar al-Mansour | 754-775 | He suppressed the centers of resistance of the Umayyads in Iraq, the rebellion in Medina (762) and the claims of Uncle Abdullah (774). Founder of Baghdad. | |
| 3 | Muhammad al-Mahdi | 775-785 | Implemented tax reform. He paid special attention to the fight against zindiks. Suppressed the rebellion of Mukanna (776-783) and the rebellion of the Alids in the Hejaz (785). | |
| 4 | Musa al-Hadi | 785-786 | Voluntarily recognized the authority of his brother Harun ar-Rashid, but was poisoned by his own mother. | |
| 5 | Harun al-Rashid | 786-809, 785-786 | The first period of the reign of Harun ar-Rashid was marked by economic and cultural flourishing. Agriculture, crafts, trade and culture began to develop. He founded a university and a library in Baghdad. During the reign of Harun al-Rashid, anti-government uprisings took place in Deilem, Syria and other areas of the Caliphate. | |
| 6 | Muhammad al-Amin | 809-813 | Al-Amin neglected state affairs, indulged in entertainment, for which he was not popular among the people. He got involved in a conflict with his brother al-Mamun because of the succession to the throne (third fitnah). After the siege of Baghdad by the troops of al-Mamun, al-Amin fled, but was captured and executed. | |
| 7 | Abdullah al-Mamun | 813-833, 809-813 | He attracted scientists to governing the state and founded the House of Wisdom (Beit al-hikma) in Baghdad. He sympathized with the Mu'tazilites and in 827 officially recognized the creation of the Koran. In 831, al-Mamun made an unsuccessful attempt to find treasures in the Pyramid of Cheops. | |
| 8 | Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi | 817-819 | In 817, the inhabitants of Baghdad revolted against the caliph al-Mamun and proclaimed the caliph Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi. In 819, after several months of siege, al-Mamun captured Baghdad, and Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi fled. | |
| 9 | Muhammad al-Mutasim | 833-842 | He stopped the campaign against the Byzantines and returned to Baghdad. In the fall of 835, al-Mutasim moved the capital of the caliphate from Baghdad to Samarra. Suppressed Babek's uprising in Azerbaijan. | |
| 10 | Harun al-Wasik | 842-847 | During his reign, Mikhna became more active. In Baghdad, Samarra and Basra, the Mu'tazilites gained the greatest influence among the court theologians. He died of illness. | |
| 11 | Jafar al-Mutawakkil | 847-861 | He strove to strengthen the authority of the Caliph government, relying on the conservative part of Islamic society. He put a lot of effort into the construction of Samarra. He pushed the Mu'tazilites and stopped the mihna. In 851 he ordered the mausoleum of Imam Hussein ibn Ali in the town of Karbala to be razed to the ground. During his reign, the process of weakening the Caliphate accelerated. He was killed by his own bodyguards in Samarra. | |
| Decline | ||||
| 12 | Muhammad al-Muntasir | 861-862 | After coming to power, Caliph al-Muntasir accused of murder and executed the vizier of his father Al-Fatah ibn Hakan. He treated the Alids well and under him the ban on visiting the grave of Hussein ibn Ali in Karbala was lifted. He died of a sore throat and may have been poisoned. | |
| 13 | Ahmad al-Mustain | 862-866 | Ahmad al-Mustain was elected by the Turkic commanders who had de facto power in the caliphate. Under him, the uprisings of the Alids broke out in Tabaristan, Rhea and other areas of the Caliphate. | |
| 14 | Zubayr al-Mutazz | 866-869 | Seized power in a civil war against al-Mustain. During his reign, a crisis was growing in the country: the payment that the Turks, North Africans and other soldiers demanded amounted to two years of tax income from the entire Caliphate. All provinces were captured by usurpers or local commanders. | |
| 15 | Muhammad al-Muhtadi | 869-870 | Al-Muhtadi has sharply cut the cost of the yard. At the end of 869, a conflict broke out between the Turkic commanders Musa and Salih. | |
| 16 | Ahmad al-Mutamid | 870-892 | Divided the state into western and eastern parts. Emir of the western part appointed his son - Jafar, and the eastern part of his brother - al-Muwaffak, who became the de facto ruler of the caliphate. | |
| 17 | Abdullah al-Mutadid | 892-902 | Al-Mutadid was a brave and energetic ruler. He suppressed the Kharijites in Mesopotamia and returned Egypt to the rule of the Caliphate. | |
| 18 | Ali al-Muqtafi | 902-908 | Al-Muqtafi is considered the last of the successful Baghdad caliphs. He managed to gain a foothold on the throne and return Egypt to the rule of the Caliphate, but it was under him that the Karmatians began to strengthen. | |
| 19 | Jafar al-Muqtadir | 908-929, 929-932 | Al-Muktadir was a weak ruler who preferred to spend time in feasts and harem pleasures, under him the Arab Caliphate went into constant decline, no longer replaced by ups. At the same time, North Africa was lost, Egypt and Mosul fell away, the Karmatians raged. | |
| 20 | Abdallah ibn al-Mutazz | 908 | In 902, Abdallah ibn al-Mutazz left the court, but in the time of troubles that followed the death of al-Muktafi, he was drawn into a dynastic struggle and for one day (December 17, 908) seized the caliph throne. However, the very next day he was overthrown by the court guard, led by his own nephew, and a few days later was executed. | |
| 21 | Muhammad al-Qahir | 929, 932-934 |
After the assassination of al-Muqtadir in 932, the conspirators, fearing revenge from the son of the deceased, chose to enthroned al-Qahir. He immediately launched such a campaign of terror. Soon a new conspiracy was organized and the caliph was captured by the conspirators. Since he refused to voluntarily abdicate, he was blinded and thrown into prison for 11 years. | |
| 22 | Ahmad ar-Radi | 934-940 | Vizier Ibn Raik had real power in the caliphate. Ar-Radi is considered the last "real" caliph who actually performed all the religious duties assigned to the caliph. However, in general, the caliphate under him continued to decline: North Africa with parts of Syria and Mesopotamia fell away, and the Karmatians and local leaders took power in Arabia. | |
| 23 | Ibrahim al-Muttaki | 940-944 | In state affairs, al-Muttaki was entirely dependent on the command of the army and could not significantly influence them. During his reign, the Byzantines reached Nisibin. An uprising took place in Vasit. | |
| 24 | Abdullah al-Mustakfi | 944-946 | During his reign, the troops of Buyid Ahmad ibn Buwayh attacked Baghdad. Al-Mustakfi brought the Buyids closer to him, and they, increasing their influence, soon established control over the treasury. In 976, Ahmad ibn Buwayh suspected the Caliph of a conspiracy against him and moved his guard to the palace. As a result, the caliph was blinded and deposed. The invasions of the Byzantines and the Rus continued. | |
| Under the rule of Buyids | ||||
| 25 | Abul Qasim al-Muti | 946-974 | Caliph al-Muti had to support himself from the income from some of the estates left to him, which was barely enough to protect himself from want. In 974 he was paralyzed and he abdicated in favor of the son of at-Tai. | |
| 26 | Abu Bakr at-Tai | 974-991 | Like his father, at-Tai eked out a more than insignificant existence and was sometimes deprived of the most necessary things. He endured contempt and complete misunderstanding from the Shiite sultans. In 991 at-Tai Buyids deposed him and handed over the Caliphate to al-Muttaki's son, al-Qadir. | |
| 27 | Al-Qadir | 991-1031 | Al-Qadir was a kind, religious, merciful and God-fearing person. By marrying the daughter of Sultan Baha ad-Dauly, he was able to, to some extent, return the lost splendor to the Abbasid Caliphate. | |
| 28 | Al-qaim | 1031-1075 | Under al-Qaim, Iraq was conquered by the Seljuk Turks. Since the Seljuks were Sunnis, the position of the Caliphs immediately improved significantly. True, the Seljuk sultans were not going to share secular power. In 1058 the ruler of the Seljuk state Togryl I received from al-Qaim an investiture for the title of Sultan. The Seljuks provided the Caliphs with funds for a fairly representative life. | |
| Under the rule of the Seljukids | ||||
| 29 | Abdullah al-Muqtadi | 1075-1094 | In 1087, al-Muqtadi married the daughter of the Seljuk Sultan Malikshah, who died two years later. In 1092 Malikshah arrived in Baghdad, tried to overthrow the Caliph and expel him from the city. However, Malikshah fell seriously ill and died before he could fulfill his intention. During the reign of Caliph al-Muqtadi, the Seljuks regained control over Antioch, which Byzantium had previously recaptured from the Muslims. The conquests in India made it possible to establish control over new territories. | |
| 30 | Ahmad al-Mustazhir | 1094-1118 | Al-Mustazhir was a virtuous man, an educated, merciful, just man. He wrote poetry and listened to the complaints of his subjects. Under him, prosperity reigned in Baghdad, but the first Crusades began in the eastern regions of the Muslim world. | |
| 31 | Abu Mansur al-Mustarshid | 1118-1135 | In 1125, military clashes broke out between the Caliph al-Mustarshid and the Seljuk sultan Masud, as a result of which al-Mustarshid Billah was defeated, was captured and sent to one of the fortresses of Hamadan. Massoud's uncle, Sultan Sanjar, asked him to release al-Mustarshid and publicly apologize. Massoud agreed to fulfill his uncle's request, and then Sultan Sanjar sent his representatives and soldiers to the Caliph so that they would inform him of reconciliation. Among the soldier was a group of Batinite assassins who infiltrated the Caliph's tent. When the guards found out about this, the caliph and several of his entourage were killed, but the soldiers managed to kill all the murderers. | |
| 32 | Abu Jafar al-Rashid | 1135-1136 | After accession to the throne, the Seljuk sultan Masud demanded 400 thousand dinars from the young caliph, which his father undertook to pay him during the period of captivity. Caliph al-Rashid refused to pay this amount and turned for help to the Emir of Mosul, Imaduddin Zangi. At this time, the Seljukid Daoud arrived in Baghdad and ar-Rashid declared him sultan. As a result, relations between Masud and the Caliph deteriorated further and Masud entered Baghdad with a large army. The caliph himself had to flee with Imaduddin Zangi to Mosul. | |
| 33 | Muhammad al-Muqtafi | 1136-1160 | He came to power at the age of 41, as a result of the deposition of the Seljuk Sultan Masud of his nephew al-Rashid Billah. His wife was the sister of Sultan Massoud. In 1139 (542 AH) Caliph al-Muktafi Liamrillah declared his son Yusuf al-Mustanjid his heir. In 1146 (549 AH) the Fatimid caliph az-Zahir Billah was assassinated. Caliph al-Muktafi called on Hypuddin Zangi to take advantage of this and make a campaign against the Fatimids, finally overthrowing this dynasty. However, during that period, Hypuddin Zangi was engaged in a war with the Crusaders and Byzantium. Having established control over Damascus, Zangi turned his state into a powerful force. | |
| 34 | Yusuf al-Mustanjid | 1160-1170 | Caliph al-Mustanjid was a virtuous, just and educated person. He wrote poetry and studied sciences, including astronomy. During His reign, taxes and customs duties were significantly reduced. In Syria and Egypt, there were fierce wars between crusaders and Muslims. Due to the decline of the Fatimid state, only the atabek Hypuddin Zangi commanded the Muslim armies. | |
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